Veterinary surgery - Specialty Surgical Disciplines

Veterinary Surgical Procedures This guide covers the major surgical procedures used in companion animal medicine across several specialties. Understanding these procedures—their purposes, indications, and outcomes—is essential knowledge for veterinary professionals. Orthopedic Surgery Orthopedic surgery addresses structural problems with bones and joints. These procedures restore mobility and pain-free function in animals with injury or degenerative conditions. Cruciate Ligament Repair The cranial cruciate ligament is a key structure that stabilizes the knee joint in dogs and cats. When this ligament ruptures, the knee becomes unstable, causing pain and lameness. Repair procedures restore knee stability, allowing the animal to return to normal function. Various surgical techniques exist to accomplish this, but all work by restoring the structural support that the torn ligament provided. Hip Dysplasia Interventions Hip dysplasia is a developmental condition where the hip joint doesn't form properly, leading to joint instability, arthritis, and pain. Three main surgical approaches treat hip dysplasia: Femoral head osteotomy removes the head of the femur (thighbone). By eliminating the damaged joint surface, this procedure eliminates the pain caused by the poor joint fit, though it does sacrifice normal hip anatomy. Triple pelvic osteotomy is a reconstructive procedure that reorients the pelvic bones to improve the hip joint's alignment and stability. This procedure works best in younger animals before significant arthritis has developed. Total hip replacement surgically removes the damaged hip joint and replaces it with a prosthetic implant. This restores near-normal hip function and is particularly useful in older animals or those with severe dysplasia. Medial Patellar Luxation Correction The patella (kneecap) normally sits in a groove on the femur. In medial patellar luxation, the patella abnormally slips toward the inside of the leg, causing pain and lameness. Surgery corrects this by realigning the patellar ligament and deepening the groove that holds the patella in place, restoring normal knee mechanics. Bone Fracture Management Broken bones require stabilization to heal properly. Three main approaches accomplish this: Internal fixation uses metal plates and screws or intramedullary pins placed surgically inside or on the bone to hold fragments in alignment while they heal. External fixation uses pins or clamps that attach to the outside of the bone to maintain alignment. This technique is particularly useful for complex fractures or when the bone is too damaged for internal fixation. Casting applies a rigid external mold that immobilizes the broken bone, allowing natural healing. This is appropriate for stable, uncomplicated fractures. Arthroscopy Arthroscopy is a minimally invasive technique that uses a small camera to visualize joint structures directly. This allows the surgeon to diagnose and treat joint disorders—such as cartilage damage, loose bone fragments, or torn ligaments—through tiny incisions. Because it avoids large surgical trauma, arthroscopy allows faster recovery than traditional open joint surgery. Limb Amputation When a limb is irreparably damaged (from severe trauma, untreatable infection, or cancer), amputation becomes necessary. Most companion animals adapt well to three-limb function, and amputation eliminates pain and allows the animal to return to near-normal activity levels. Dental Surgery Dental procedures address both preventive care and treatment of dental disease, which is extremely common in companion animals. Canine Dental Care Dental prophylaxis is preventive treatment performed under anesthesia. It removes tartar buildup from tooth surfaces and treats periodontal disease (gum infection). Regular prophylaxis prevents tooth loss and systemic infections. Beyond routine cleaning, dogs may need additional procedures: Extraction removes abscessed teeth (teeth with deep infections in the root) and broken teeth that cannot be repaired or endanger the animal's health Deciduous tooth removal extracts baby teeth that have not naturally shed, which can interfere with proper eruption of permanent teeth Root canal therapy treats infected tooth pulp, allowing the tooth to be saved rather than extracted Gingival hyperplasia or epulides excision removes overgrown gum tissue or benign gum tumors that interfere with eating or normal anatomy Feline Dental Care Cats are particularly prone to a specific condition called feline odontoclastic resorptive lesions (FORL). In this condition, cells begin breaking down the tooth structure from within the root, causing tooth resorption and severe pain. Affected teeth must be extracted, and cats also receive the same preventive and therapeutic dental procedures as dogs. Ophthalmic Surgery Ophthalmic procedures address conditions affecting the eye and eyelids. These surgeries often preserve vision or prevent pain from untreatable eye disease. Cataract Surgery A cataract is an opacity (cloudiness) of the lens that blocks light from reaching the retina, causing blindness. Cataract extraction surgically removes the affected lens, restoring the ability of light to reach the retina and restore vision. This procedure has a high success rate in animals, particularly when performed before other retinal damage develops. Enucleation Enucleation is surgical removal of the entire eye. This procedure treats severe conditions where the eye cannot be saved—most commonly glaucoma (dangerously elevated eye pressure) or severe eye prolapse (the eye bulging out of the socket). While it results in permanent loss of vision in that eye, it eliminates pain and allows normal healing. Entropion Correction Entropion is inward turning of the eyelid, causing the eyelashes to rub against the cornea and cause pain and ulceration. Surgical correction tightens and repositions the eyelid so it sits normally against the eye surface, eliminating the irritation. Eyelid Tumor Removal Benign and malignant tumors can arise from the eyelid skin or tissues. Surgical excision removes these tumors, restoring normal eyelid appearance and function. The surgeon must remove adequate tissue margins to ensure complete tumor removal while preserving enough eyelid structure for normal function. Cherry Eye Repair "Cherry eye" is prolapse of the third eyelid gland (a tear-producing gland normally hidden beneath the third eyelid). The gland swells and becomes visible as a red mass in the corner of the eye. Surgery repositions the prolapsed gland back to its normal location, allowing it to function properly and preventing further irritation. Cardiology Surgery Cardiac surgeries address structural heart problems, including valve defects and abnormal blood vessel connections. Balloon Valvuloplasty Some animals are born with or develop stenotic (narrowed) heart valves that obstruct blood flow. Balloon valvuloplasty uses a catheter with an inflatable balloon that is advanced through blood vessels to the narrowed valve. When inflated, the balloon stretches the valve open, improving blood flow and reducing the heart's workload. This is a less invasive alternative to open-heart surgery. Device Closure of Patent Ductus Arteriosus The ductus arteriosus is a normal blood vessel in fetal circulation that should close after birth. When it fails to close (patent ductus arteriosus), blood flows abnormally between the aorta and pulmonary artery, overloading the heart and causing congestive heart failure. Closure devices—either coils or specialized ACDO devices—are placed through blood vessels to seal the abnormal connection, preventing the left-sided heart failure that results from this condition. Centesis for Congestive Heart Failure Congestive heart failure causes fluid to accumulate in body cavities (most commonly the thoracic cavity around the lungs). Centesis is needle aspiration that removes this fluid, reducing the pressure on the lungs and allowing easier breathing. This procedure provides rapid symptom relief without requiring general anesthesia, making it useful for emergency stabilization of severely affected animals. Surgical Oncology Surgical oncology addresses cancers that require surgical treatment. Cancer surgery aims to completely remove tumors while minimizing damage to surrounding healthy tissue. Common Skin Tumors in Dogs and Cats Several tumor types commonly affect the skin: Lipomas are benign fatty tumors that are common in older dogs Mast cell tumors are common malignant tumors in dogs that release inflammatory chemicals Melanomas are pigmented tumors that can be benign or malignant Squamous cell carcinomas are malignant tumors from skin surface cells Basal cell carcinomas are malignant tumors from deeper skin layers Fibrosarcomas are malignant tumors from connective tissue Histiocytomas are benign tumors that typically occur in younger dogs Surgical Treatment of Skin Tumors Skin tumor removal uses two main approaches: Simple excision removes the tumor with a modest border of normal tissue. This works well for benign tumors or easily accessible locations. Excision with reconstructive plastic surgery is used when tumors are large, located on the face or joints, or when simple removal would create an unacceptable functional or cosmetic defect. Techniques include skin grafts, local tissue flaps, or staged procedures that allow the skin to stretch before closure. Oral Tumors and Their Management Oral tumors—including melanomas, fibrosarcomas, and squamous cell carcinomas—are aggressive malignancies. Successful treatment requires wide surgical margins (removing substantial surrounding normal tissue) because these tumors spread into surrounding tissues. Treatment often requires removing portions of the mandible (lower jaw) or maxilla (upper jaw) to ensure complete tumor removal. Despite the radical nature of these surgeries, most animals adapt well and maintain good quality of life. Other Common Malignancies Requiring Surgery Beyond skin and oral tumors, several internal malignancies benefit from surgical treatment: Osteosarcomas (bone cancers) typically require amputation of the affected limb Gastrointestinal tract tumors are surgically removed when feasible Splenic masses (tumors of the spleen) are removed by splenectomy Urinary bladder tumors may be surgically removed if they are early-stage and don't involve too much of the bladder wall